How do plant demographic and ecological traits combined with social dynamics and human traits affect woody plant selection for medicinal uses in Benin (West Africa)?

BACKGROUND: Several hypotheses have been used in ethnobotany to explain the plant's selection criteria by people for their daily needs. Thus, it is important to assess synergy and complementarity among them, especially, those concerning the plant use value, social dynamics and human traits. The study aims to (i) highlight people's socio-economic factors, and plant ecological traits that affect the plant use-availability dynamic (PUD); and (ii) assess the available species diversity effect on ethno-medicinal knowledge diversity in Benin. METHODS: Ethnobotanical interviews were carried out to quantify the importance of local species in different ecological zones of Benin with 590 traditional medicine actors. Vegetation surveys were done to assess species availability within 337 plots of 50 m x 40 m or 60 m x 30 m, depending on the climatic zone, for a total of 61.6 ha, established in 15 forests distributed within the 10 phytodistricts of Benin. The plant use availability hypothesis was quantified as a dynamic link between species use value and availability (PUD). A general and mixed linear models were used to assess the significance of each factor's effect on PUD. Pearson correlation test was applied on Shannon diversity index considering inventoried species in the field and those which were cited by people, for the available species diversity effect on ethno-medicinal knowledge diversity assessment. RESULTS: A hundred and twenty woody medicinal plants, mostly trees (68.33%), were sampled. Growth form and its interaction with phytodistrict have a significant effect (p: 0.005) on PUD. The less available trees were the most used in the phytodistricts 3, 4, 8 and 10. PUD varies significantly according to social factors (p: 0.007). Ethnicity, age and main activity were the most quoted social factors which influenced the PUD. Ethnicity and age have various effects considering the phytodistricts. Moreover, the influence of age changes following the main activity. Plant selection did not solely link to the surrounding diversity (r: - 0.293; p: 0.403). Within some phytodistricts, especially those of 3, 4, 8 and 10, the less available tree species were the most requested. CONCLUSION: It is urgent to reforest vegetation patches in some phytodistricts (3, 4, 8 and 10) of Benin with widely requested and no available species to avoid the extinction of their wild populations. This concerns Cassia sieberiana DC., Anonychium africanum (Guill. & Perr.) C. E.Hughes & G. P. Lewis, Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir., Cola millenii K. Schum., Azadirachta indica A. Juss., Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss., Pseudocedrela kotschyi (Schweinf.) Harms, Treculia africana Decne. ex Trécul, Uapaca heudelotii Baill., Vitellaria paradoxa C. F. Gaertn., Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. and Newbouldia laevis (P. Beauv.) Seem. ex Bureau.

Heterogeneity of preferences and breeders' willingness to pay for improved livestock system in Benin, West Africa.

The productivity of livestock, including small ruminants, in Benin, is very low, and their management practices in terms of feeding, health and reproduction do not ensure their optimal production. This research aimed to assess the willingness of sheep and goat keepers to pay for an improved breeding system. Data collection from 118 sheep and 375 goat breeders selected in six agroecological zones of Benin was undertaken using the choice experiments. The mixed logit model revealed heterogeneity in the preferences of small ruminant keepers for breeds, feeding practices, health treatments and reproductive control. This heterogeneity of preferences was confirmed by the latent class logit model results, which revealed the existence of four classes of sheep breeders and three classes of goat breeders. Irrespective of species, small ruminant breeders were generally willing to use herbal medicine or combine it with modern veterinary medicine and adopt Sahelian breeds or crossbreeds (Sahelian x Djallonke). They were not willing to adapt neither zero grazing nor controlled reproduction. The combination of the coefficient estimates of the latent class logit model and the determinants of class membership showed that herders in southern Benin with small and monospecific herds were the most willing to introduce changes in their breeding system.

Effects of supplementing processed velvet beans (Mucuna pruriens L. DC. var. utilis) on nutrients intakes, growth performance, and blood profile in goats.

Ruminant production in West Africa faces both qualitative and quantitative feeding constraints during the dry season and animal diseases in smallholder farms. High-protein legume seeds can represent an alternative and sustainable feed that could enhance animal performance. The use of legume beans, limited by their anti-nutritional factor contents, can be improved through different detoxification methods. The study evaluated the effects of processed velvet beans compared to raw velvet beans on the nutritive value of the beans, nutrient intakes, growth performance, and blood profile in West African Dwarf (WAD) goats. Four diets were tested, including 22.22% of raw velvet beans (RW diet), soaked beans (SK diet), boiled beans (BL diet), or roasted beans (RT diet). Twenty WAD goats of 6.85 ± 0.93 kg of body weight were divided equally into 4 groups and fed one of the four experimental diets. The processing method affects the crude protein content of velvet beans; in particular, tannin content was reduced with soaking or boiling. Dry matter and nutrient intakes resulted significantly (p < 0.05) higher in the SK diet compared to the control. Daily weight gain was highest in SK and RT diets and lowest in BL and the control diets RW. Therefore, the FCR was highest in BL and lowest in SK diets. In addition, SK diet showed the lowest feeding cost (1046.70 XOF/kg WG in SK). Our study revealed that processed velvet beans obtained using simple methods (e.g., soaking, boiling, or roasting) could be used as low-cost protein supplements in smallholder farms to enhance goats' performance. The soaking method appears the simplest and cheapest process that smallholder farmers can easily use to enhance goats' productivity and improve their livelihoods.

Nutritional Value of Climate-Resilient Forage Species Sustaining Peri-Urban Dairy Cow Production in the Coastal Grasslands of Benin (West Africa).

Along the coast of West Africa, grazing ruminants rely on perennial forage species remaining in uncultivated plots, roadsides, and marshlands during the dry season. To assess the quality of these forages, thirteen drought-tolerant plants were harvested at the mature stage, and the samples were evaluated for chemical composition, in vitro fermentation characteristics, and metabolizable energy (ME) content. They are ten drought-tolerant grasses, including: Andropogon virginicus, Brachiaria deflexa, Cenchorus biflorus, Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Eragrostis tremula, Leptochloa caerulescens, Loudetia aroundinacea, Paspalum notatum, Paspalum vaginatum, Pennisetum purpureum, two perennial herbs, Chamaecrista rotundifolia, Zornia latifolia, and one multipurpose tree, Elaeis guineensis. Legume species had the highest nutritional value (highest crude protein and ME, and lowest neutral detergent fiber) of the species studied. In terms of the in vitro data, the gas produced after 120 h of incubation ranged from 149 mL/g in E. tremula to 185 mL/g in Paspalum. Z. latifoliaa and had the fastest rate of fermentation, producing half of the total gas in 19.5 h, whereas E. tremula required 49.9 h (p < 0.01). The production of branched-chain fatty acids (isobutyrate and isovalerate) was greatest for E. guineensis and the lowest in both Paspalum species (p < 0.01). The study suggests the need for the protein supplementation of the animals to ensure maximum forage utilization and to satisfy the nutrient requirements of ruminant livestock.

Anthelmintic Activity, Cytotoxicity, and Phytochemical Screening of Plants Used to Treat Digestive Parasitosis of Small Ruminants in Benin (West Africa).

Medicinal plants continue to be used alone or in combination with veterinary drugs to treat animal ailments, especially in developing countries where livestock farmers often lack access to modern veterinary services and drugs. In addition, digestive parasitosis remain a major constraint for small ruminant livestock. The objective of this study was to screen the anthelmintic activity of the main plants used in the treatment of the digestive parasitosis of small ruminants in Benin. A total of 40 extracts were prepared using the successive maceration of 10 plants in four solvents of increasing polarity. The phytochemical screening of the plants was performed, and the anthelmintic activity of the extracts was evaluated on L3 larvae of Haemonchus contortus. The cytotoxicity of the 40 extracts was determined on WI38 noncancerous fibroblast cells using the MTT assay, and the total phenol content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), and condensed tannin content (CTC) were quantified in the most effective extracts using colorimetric methods. The results show that the plants contained tannins, flavonoids, and triterpenoids which may, in part, justify their anthelmintic activities. All plants gave active extracts at the highest concentration tested (1200 µg/mL). Methanol (MeOH) extracts were, in general, more effective than the hexane (HEX), dichloromethane (DCM), and aqueous (H2O) ones in inhibiting larval migration, with the MeOH extracts of Terminalia leiocarpa, Adansonia digitata, and Momordica charantia being the most effective. Nevertheless, the MeOH extract of M. charantia was highly cytotoxic at the concentration of 100 µg/mL. The anthelmintic activity of M. charantia, Vitex doniana, and Caesalpinia bonduc was studied on H. contortus for the first time. These results provide scientific information that can be used for better valorization of the anthelmintic potential of the studied plants and to initiate the process of the identification of new anthelmintic molecules.

Morphological variability within the indigenous sheep population of Benin.

Knowledge of both the genetic diversity and geographical distribution of animal genetic resources is a prerequisite for their sustainable utilization, improvement and conservation. The present study was undertaken to explore the current morphological variability within the sheep population in Benin as a prelude for their molecular characterization. From November 2018 to February 2020, 25 quantitative linear body measurements and 5 qualitative physical traits were recorded on 1240 adult ewes from the 10 phytogeographic zones that comprise the three vegetation zones of Benin. Fourteen morphological indices were calculated based on the linear body measurements. The collected data were first analyzed using multiple comparisons of least-square means (LSmeans), followed by generalized linear model (GLM) procedures, to explore the relationships among the measured morphometric traits and the 10 phytogeographic zones. Next, the presence of any genetic sub-populations was examined using multivariate analytical methods, including canonical discriminant analysis (CDA) and ascending hierarchical clustering (AHC). Univariate analyses indicated that all quantitative linear body measurements varied significantly (P<0.05) across the phytogeographic zones. The highest values (LSmean± standard error) of withers height (68.3±0.47 cm), sternum height (46.0±0.35 cm), and rump height (68.8±0.47 cm) were recorded in the Mekrou-Pendjari zone, the drier phytogeographic zone in the North, whereas the lowest values, 49.2±0.34, 25.9±0.26, and 52.0±0.35 cm, respectively, were recorded in the Pobe zone in the South. Multivariate analyses revealed the prevalence of four distinct sheep sub-populations in Benin. The sub-population from the South could be assimilated to the short-legged and that from the North to the West African long-legged sheep. The two other sub-populations were intermediate and closer to the crossbreeds or another short-legged sub-breed. The proportion of individuals correctly classified in their group of origin was approximately 74%. These results uncovered a spatial morphological variation in the Beninese sheep population along a South-North phytogeographic gradient.

Ethnoveterinary knowledge of sheep and goat farmers in Benin (West Africa): effect of socioeconomic and environmental factors.

Sheep and goats are two of the main animal species raised in Benin and one of the main sources of income for people living in rural areas. Faced with the inaccessibility of synthetic veterinary products and their low purchasing power, the majority of breeders use ethnoveterinary practices to treat small ruminants diseases. The specific objectives of the current study were (1) to document the traditional knowledge regarding the disorder groups treated and the medicinal plants used in the health and zootechnical management of small ruminants in Benin and (2) to assess the effect of gender, ethnicity, agro-ecological zone and herd size associated with them. To achieve these objectives, an ethnoveterinary survey was conducted in different agro-ecological zones from September 2018 to February 2019. A questionnaire was administered to 506 breeders. The data were analyzed through calculation of the Fidelity Level (FL), Cultural Importance Index (CI) and Informant Consensus Factor (ICF). Ten disorder groups were treated by the people surveyed. These were mainly digestive disorders (D) and reproductive disorders (W), both presenting a ICF value of 0.8. A total of 101 medicinal plants belonging to 42 families and 90 genera were recorded. Spondias mombin, Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides and Khaya senegalensis were the most important plants with CI values of 0.208, 0.125 and 0.121, respectively. Gender, ethnicity, agro-ecological zone and flocks size were the socioeconomic and environmental factors that significantly influenced the level of ethnoveterinary knowledge. Chemical and biological analysis are needed on less studied plants such as, Striga hermonthica, Crossopteryx febrifuga, Elaeis guineensis and Momordica charantia.

Traditional medicinal knowledge of woody species across climatic zones in Benin (West Africa).

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Plant parts are often used by local people to treat their affections. This study addressed the Traditional Medicinal Knowledge of woody species in Benin and the dependence of medicinal use of woody species on climatic zones. AIM OF THE STUDY: It reports (i) the main diseases categories treated with medicinal use of woody species in Benin and changes across climatic zones by inferring their epidemiological status, and (ii) the woody species involved and their distribution according to climate conditions. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ethnobotanical interviews were undertaken using a semi-structured questionnaire. Five hundred and ninety medicinal plant professionals (healers, traders …) were interviewed in the whole country. Frequency of citation and informant consensus factor were calculated to highlight the main human diseases categories and woody species used for their treatment. A principal component analysis was performed to determine the occurrence of diseases categories in different climatic zones. RESULTS: About 94% of international diseases categories were treated using medicinal woody species in Benin. Nighty-seven ailments in 16 diseases categories were identified. Among them, 5 diseases categories (General and unspecified, Digestive, Skin, Neurological, and Musculoskeletal) were highlighted as important. The Sudano-Guinean zone showed the highest diseases frequencies, whereas the Sudanian zone showed the lowest. The epidemiological status of some phytodistricts was worrisome. In our study, 123 woody species belonging to 93 genera and 35 families were reported, and among them, 16 were the most used as treatments. CONCLUSIONS: There is a lack of consensus among traditional healers about which woody species to use. Many different species were used to treat a given diseases category. Also, information concerning their organ composition was not available in the literature, for the majority of species. Biological and chemical investigations are thus needed for a better valorization of the most frequently used plants in the future.

Nutritional Characteristics of Forage Grown in South of Benin.

In order to provide recommendations on the most useful forage species to smallholder farmers, eleven grass and eleven legume forages grown in Abomey-Calavi in Republic of Benin were investigated for nutritive value (i.e. chemical composition and energy content) and fermentation characteristics (i.e. gas and volatile fatty acid production, organic matter degradability). The in vitro gas production technique was used, incubating the forages for 120 h under anaerobic condition with buffalo rumen fluid. Compared to legume, tropical grass forages showed lower energy (8.07 vs 10.57 MJ/kg dry matter [DM]) and crude protein level (16.10% vs 19.91% DM) and higher cell wall content (neutral detergent fiber: 63.8% vs 40.45% DM), respectively. In grass forages, the chemical composition showed a quite high crude protein content; the in vitro degradability was slightly lower than the range of tropical pasture. The woody legumes were richer in protein and energy and lower in structural carbohydrates than herbaceous plants, however, their in vitro results are influenced by the presence of complex compounds (i.e. tannins). Significant correlations were found between chemical composition and in vitro fermentation characteristics. The in vitro gas production method appears to be a suitable technique for the evaluation of the nutritive value of forages in developing countries.